Nikoleta karra biography of george washington

The states bickered and grew apart. When a Constitutional Convention was established to address these problems, its chances of success were slim. Jefferson, Madison, and the other Founding Fathers realized that only one man could unite the fractious states: George Washington. Reluctant, but duty-bound, Washington rode to Philadelphia in the summer of to preside over the Convention.

Although Washington is often overlooked in most accounts of the period, this masterful new history from Pulitzer Prize-winner Edward J. To this landmark biography of our first president, Joseph J. Ellis brings the exacting scholarship, shrewd analysis, and lyric prose that have made him one of the premier historians of the Revolutionary era.

Here is the impetuous young officer whose miraculous survival in combat half-convinced him that he could not be killed. Here is the free-spending landowner whose debts to English merchants instilled him with a prickly resentment of imperial power. We see the general who lost more battles than he won and the reluctant president who tried to float above the partisan feuding of his cabinet.

Washington, in his will, made his displeasure with slavery known, as he ordered that all his enslaved people be granted their freedom upon the death of his wife Martha. Washington loved the landed gentry's life of horseback riding, fox hunts, fishing and cotillions. He worked six days a week, often taking off his coat and performing manual labor with his workers.

He was an innovative and responsible landowner, breeding cattle and horses and tending to his fruit orchards. Much has been made of the fact that Washington used false teeth or dentures for most of his adult life. Indeed, Washington's correspondence to friends and family makes frequent references to aching teeth, inflamed gums and various dental woes.

Washington had one tooth pulled when he was just 24 years old, and by the time of his inauguration in he had just one natural tooth left. But his false teeth weren't made of wood, as some legends suggest. Instead, Washington's false teeth were fashioned from human teeth — including teeth from enslaved people and his own pulled teeth — ivory, animal teeth and assorted metals.

Washington's dental problems, according to some historians, probably impacted the shape of his face and may have contributed to his quiet, somber demeanor: During the Constitutional Convention, Washington addressed the gathered dignitaries only once. Though the British Proclamation Act of — prohibiting settlement beyond the Alleghenies — irritated Washington and he opposed the Stamp Act ofhe did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance against the British until the widespread protest of the Townshend Acts in His letters of this period indicate he was totally opposed to the colonies declaring independence.

However, byhe wasn't opposed to resisting what he believed were fundamental violations by the Crown of the rights of Englishmen. InWashington introduced a resolution to the House of Burgesses calling for Virginia to boycott British goods until the Acts were repealed. After the passage of the Coercive Acts inWashington chaired a meeting in which the Fairfax Resolves were adopted, calling for the convening of the Continental Congress and the use of armed resistance as a last resort.

He was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress in March After the battles of Lexington and Concord in Aprilthe political dispute between Great Britain and her North American colonies escalated into an armed conflict. In May, Washington traveled to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia dressed in a military uniform, indicating that he was prepared for war.

As was his custom, he did not seek out the office of commander, but he faced no serious competition. Washington was the best choice for a number of reasons: he had the prestige, military experience and charisma for the job and he had been advising Congress for months. Another factor was political: The Revolution had started in New England and at the time, they were the only colonies that had directly felt the brunt of British tyranny.

Virginia was the largest British colony and New England needed Southern colonial support. Political considerations and force of personality aside, Washington was not necessarily qualified to wage war on the world's most powerful nation. Washington's training and experience were primarily in frontier warfare involving small numbers of soldiers.

He wasn't trained in the open-field nikoleta karra biography of george washington of battle practiced by the commanding British generals. He also had no practical experience maneuvering large formations of infantry, commanding cavalry or artillery, or maintaining the flow of supplies for thousands of men in the field. But he was courageous and determined and smart enough to keep one step ahead of the enemy.

Washington and his small army did taste victory early in March by placing artillery above Boston, on Dorchester Heights, forcing the British to withdraw. Washington then moved his troops into New York City. But in June, a new British commander, Sir William Howearrived in the Colonies with the largest expeditionary force Britain had ever deployed to date.

In Augustthe British army launched an attack and quickly took New York City in the largest battle of the war. Washington's army was routed and suffered the surrender of 2, men. He ordered the remains of his army to retreat into Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. Confident the war would be over in a few months, General Howe wintered his troops at Trenton and Princeton, leaving Washington free to attack at the time and place of his choosing.

On Christmas night,Washington and his men returned across the Delaware River and attacked unsuspecting Hessian mercenaries at Trenton, forcing their surrender. A few days later, evading a force that had been sent to destroy his army, Washington attacked the British again, this time at Princeton, dealing them a humiliating loss. General Howe's strategy was to capture colonial cities and stop the rebellion at key economic and political centers.

He never abandoned the belief that once the Americans were deprived of their major cities, the rebellion would wither. In the summer ofhe mounted an offensive against Philadelphia. Washington moved in his army to defend the city but was defeated at the Battle of Brandywine. Philadelphia fell two weeks later. In the late summer ofthe British army sent a major force, under the command of John Burgoyne, south from Quebec to Saratoga, New York, to split the rebellion between New England and the southern colonies.

Without support from Howe, who couldn't reach him in time, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire 6, man army. The victory was a major turning point in the war as it encouraged France to openly ally itself with the American cause for independence. Through all of this, Washington discovered an important lesson: The political nature of war was just as important as the military one.

Washington began to understand that military victories were as important as keeping the resistance alive. Americans began to believe that they could meet their objective of independence without defeating the British army. Meanwhile, British General Howe clung to the strategy of capturing colonial cities in hopes of smothering the rebellion.

Howe didn't realize that capturing cities like Philadelphia and New York would not unseat colonial power. The Congress would just pack up and meet elsewhere. The 11,man force went into winter quarters and over the next six months suffered thousands of deaths, mostly from disease. But the army emerged from the winter still intact and in relatively good order.

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Realizing their strategy of capturing colonial cities had failed, the British command replaced General Howe with Sir Henry Clinton. Washington and his men delivered several quick blows to the moving army, attacking the British flank near Monmouth Courthouse. Though a tactical standoff, the encounter proved Washington's army capable of open field battle.

For the remainder of the war, Washington was content to keep the British confined to New York, although he never totally abandoned the idea of retaking the city. The alliance with France had brought a large French army and a navy fleet. In OctoberDinwiddie appointed Washington as a special envoy to demand the French forces vacate land that was claimed by the British.

Washington was also directed to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy and to gather intelligence about the French forces. This name, meaning "devourer of villages", had previously been given to his great-grandfather John Washington in the late 17th century by the Susquehannock. Washington's party reached the Ohio River in November and was intercepted by a French patrol.

The party was escorted to Fort Le Boeufwhere Washington was received in a friendly manner. Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer after a few days' delay, as well as food and winter clothing for his party's journey back to Virginia. In FebruaryDinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of the strong Virginia Regimentwith orders to confront the French at the Forks of the Ohio.

In May, having established a defensive position at Great Meadows, Washington learned that the French had made camp seven miles 11 km away; he decided to take the offensive. His small force of Virginians and Indian allies [ c ] [ 26 ] killed the French, including their commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonvillewho had been carrying a diplomatic message for the British.

The French later found their countrymen dead and scalpedblaming Washington, who had retreated to Fort Necessity. The rest of the Virginia Regiment joined Washington the following month with news that he had been promoted to the rank of colonel and given command of the full regiment. They were reinforced by an independent company of a hundred South Carolinians led by Captain James Mackay ; his royal commission outranked Washington's and a conflict of command ensued.

On July 3, French soldiers attacked Fort Necessity, and the ensuing battle ended in Washington's surrender. He refused, as it would have been a demotion—the British had ordered that "colonials" could not be ranked any higher than captain—and instead resigned his commission. When he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela, still very ill, the French and their Indian allies ambushed the divided army.

Two-thirds of the British force became casualties in the ensuing Battle of the Monongahelaand Braddock was killed. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas GageWashington rallied the survivors and formed a rear guardallowing the remnants of the force to retreat. The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in Augustand Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with the rank of colonel.

Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with Captain John Dagworthywho commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment's headquarters in Fort Cumberland. Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission, and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland. The French had abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault, however, and Washington only saw a friendly fire incident which left 14 dead and 26 injured.

Frustrated, he resigned his commission soon afterwards and returned to Mount Vernon. Under Washington, the Virginia Regiment had defended miles km of frontier against twenty Indian attacks in ten months. Though he failed to realize a royal commission, which made him hostile towards the British, [ 31 ] he gained self-confidence, leadership skills, and knowledge of British military tactics.

The destructive competition Washington witnessed among colonial politicians fostered his later support of a strong central government. Martha was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple had a happy marriage.

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As a result, he became one of the wealthiest men in Virginia, which increased his social standing. At Washington's urging, Governor Lord Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's promise to grant land bounties to those who served with volunteer militias during the French and Indian War. Crawford allotted 23, acres 9, ha to Washington, who told the veterans that their land was unsuitable for farming and agreed to purchase 20, acres 8, haleaving some feeling that they had been duped.

As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the Virginia House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in Washington was opposed to the taxes which the British Parliament imposed on the Colonies without proper representation.

In response to the Townshend Actshe introduced a proposal in May which urged Virginians to boycott British goods; the Townshend Acts were mostly repealed in Parliament sought to punish Massachusetts colonists for their role in the Boston Tea Party in by passing the Coercive Actswhich Washington saw as "an invasion of our rights and privileges".

The American Revolutionary War broke out on April 19, He was unanimously elected by Congress the next day. Similarly, Washington was impressed by Alexander Hamilton 's intelligence and bravery; he would later promote Hamilton to colonel and appoint him his aide-de-camp. Washington initially banned the enlistment of Black soldiers, both free and enslaved.

The British saw an opportunity to divide the colonies: the colonial governor of Virginia issued a proclamation promising freedom to slaves if they joined the British forces. In Aprilin response to the growing rebellious movement, British troops occupied Bostonled by General Thomas Gagecommander of British forces in America.

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When the Charles River froze over, Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but Gates and others were opposed to having untrained militia attempt to assault well-garrisoned fortifications. Instead, Washington agreed to secure the Dorchester Heights above Boston to try to force the British out. Washington entered the city with men, giving them explicit orders not to plunder.

After the victory at Boston, Washington correctly guessed that the British would return to New York City and retaliate. He arrived there on April 13,and ordered the construction of fortifications. He also ordered his forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses Bostonians suffered at the hands of British troops.

Howe's troop strength totaled 32, regulars and Hessian auxiliaries ; Washington had 23, men, mostly untrained recruits and militia. Overruling his generals, Washington chose to fight, based on inaccurate information that Howe's army had only around 8, soldiers. Howe sent a message to Washington to negotiate peace, addressing him as "George Washington, Esq.

In November, Howe captured Fort Washington. Loyalists in New York City considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city. Washington crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvaniawhere General John Sullivan joined him with 2, more troops. Washington returned to New Jersey on January 3,launching an attack on the British regulars at Princetonwith 40 Americans killed or wounded and British killed or captured.

In the Battle of Brandywine on September 11,Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched unopposed into the American capital at Philadelphia. A Patriot attack against the British at Germantown in October failed. Concerned about Burgoyne's movements southward, Washington sent reinforcements north with Generals Benedict Arnold and Benjamin Lincoln.

On October 7,Burgoyne tried to take Bemis Heights but was isolated from support and forced to surrender. Gates' victory emboldened Washington's critics, who favored Gates as a military leader. Washington and his army of 11, men went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December There they lost between 2, and 3, men as a result of disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter, reducing the army to below 9, men.

Washington's supporters resisted, and the matter was ultimately dropped. Washington made repeated petitions to Congress for provisions and expressed the urgency of the situation to a congressional delegation. In earlythe French entered into a Treaty of Alliance with the Americans. He chose to order a limited strike on the retreating British. Generals Lee and Lafayette moved with 4, men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first strike on June Washington relieved Lee and achieved a draw after an expansive battle.

The British continued their retreat to New York. Washington would not fight the British in a major engagement again for more than three years". Washington became America's first spymaster by designing an espionage system against the British. Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Arnold, who had distinguished himself in many campaigns, including the invasion of Quebec.

He assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses. Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies, [ ] and 5, veteran French troops led by Marshal Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island in July. General Clinton sent Arnold, now a British brigadier general, to Virginia in December with 1, troops to capture Portsmouth and conduct raids on Patriot forces.

Washington sent Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts. Inexperienced in siege warfare, he often deferred to the judgment of Rochambeau. Despite this, Rochambeau never challenged Washington's authority as the battle's commanding officer. The final American offensive began with a shot fired by Washington. When peace negotiations began in Aprilboth the British and French began gradually evacuating their forces.

The account was settled, though it was vague about large sums and included expenses his wife had incurred through visits to his headquarters. When the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3,Britain officially recognized American independence. Washington disbanded his army, giving a farewell address to his soldiers on November 2. In early DecemberWashington bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces Tavern and resigned as commander-in-chief soon after.

I will move gently down the stream of life, until I sleep with my fathers. Ferling wrote that he was delighted to be "free of the bustle of a camp and the busy scenes of public life". Washington reactivated his interests in the Great Dismal Swamp and Potomac Canal projects, begun before the war, though neither paid him any dividends.

Creditors paid him in depreciated wartime currency, and he owed significant amounts in taxes and wages. Mount Vernon had made no profit during his absence, and he saw persistently poor crop yields due to pestilence and bad weather. His estate recorded its eleventh year running at a deficit in To make his estate profitable again, Washington undertook a new landscaping plan and succeeded in cultivating a range of fast-growing trees and native shrubs.

Before returning to private life in JuneWashington called for a strong union. Though he was concerned that he nikoleta karra biography of george washington be criticized for meddling in civil matters, he sent a circular letter to the states, maintaining that the Articles of Confederation were no more than "a rope of sand". He believed the nation was on the verge of "anarchy and confusion", was vulnerable to foreign intervention, and that a national constitution would unify the states under a strong central government.

When Shays' Rebellion erupted in Massachusetts in AugustWashington was further convinced that a national constitution was needed. He had concerns about the legality of the convention and consulted James MadisonHenry Knoxand others. They persuaded him to attend as they felt his presence might induce reluctant states to send delegates and smooth the way for the ratification process while also giving legitimacy to the convention.

Washington arrived in Philadelphia on May 9,and the convention began on May Benjamin Franklin nominated Washington to preside over the meeting, and he was unanimously elected. The delegates to the Convention for the first presidential election anticipated a Washington presidency and left it to him to define the office once elected.

Livingston administered the oath, using a Bible provided by the Masons. Washington wrote to James Madison : "As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles. Washington was an able administrator and judge of talent and character.

Washington's cabinet became a consulting and advisory body, not mandated by the Constitution. Washington opposed political factionalism and remained non-partisan throughout his presidency the only United States president to do so.

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He was sympathetic to a Federalist form of government. Hamilton formed the Federalist Party to promote national credit and a financially powerful nation. Jefferson opposed Hamilton's agenda and founded the Jeffersonian Republicans. Washington favored Hamilton's agenda, however, and it ultimately went into effect—resulting in bitter controversy.

Washington initially planned to retire after his first term, weary of office and in poor health. After dealing with the infighting in his cabinet and with partisan critics, he showed little enthusiasm for a second term, and Martha wanted him not to run. Washington Irving. Austin Washington Goodreads Author. David Hackett Fischer. Timothy Ballard.

John Berlau. Brian Kilmeade. Alexis Coe Goodreads Author. Gerald M. James MacGregor Burns. Smith Norton. Michael C. Edward G. Lengel Goodreads Author. Douglas Southall Freeman. James L. Nelson Goodreads Author.